Is Atomic Theory “Questionable” In Any Way?

Strontium atoms are relatively large, with radii around 215 billionths of a millimeter. Physicist David Nadlinger at the University of Oxford made a single atom of strontium visible by causing it to absorb and re-emit light from a laser.

Are atoms proven to exist? Yes, consider this: Matter exists in different states, for examples, solids, liquids and gases. You can observe this yourself—and you can observe changes like melting or evaporation yourself. These changes happen because matter is made of tiny particles called atoms that move and interact differently in each state.

These atoms are the smallest units of an element that retain its chemical properties, and they combine in fixed, whole-number ratios to form compounds, explaining why substances have consistent compositions and predictable reactions. With a small battery, you can split water (H2O) into hydrogen (H) and oxygen (O), and if you do, you will see that there is always twice as much hydrogen as oxygen that results.

One simple way to confirm atoms exist is by observing Brownian motion: under a microscope, tiny particles (like pollen or fat globules) suspended in water move randomly. This motion happens because invisible atoms and molecules constantly bump into them. This was first observed by Robert Brown and later explained by Einstein, who showed that the random movement matches predictions if atoms exist and move as tiny particles.

Questions About the Existence of Atoms

Here is a paraphrase of a recent conversation I had with an atom skeptic.

Me: Atoms exist and are widely accepted as the fundamental building blocks of matter. The belief in atoms is supported by extensive scientific evidence accumulated over centuries.

Skeptic: Well, that “science” is only the last few hundred years, so it doesn’t prove anything. A few hundred years is nothing compared to thousands or even millions of years!

Me: The idea of atoms actually goes back over 2,000 years to ancient Greek philosophers like Democritus, who first proposed that matter is made of indivisible particles called atoms. What science has done in the last few hundred years is provide experimental evidence and detailed understanding that confirms and builds on those ancient ideas. So, while science as a formal method is recent compared to human history, the concept of atoms is ancient and has been rigorously proven through modern experiments.

Skeptic: There is still no poof they even exist.

Me: Atoms have been directly observed with advanced microscopes, and many experiments—like Rutherford’s and Einstein’s—prove they exist. It’s solid science, not just theory.

Skeptic: Those photographs are all doctored, no one has seen an actual atom, they are just “visualizations”.

Me: The images come from instruments that detect atoms by their physical effects, like electron microscopes and scanning tunneling microscopes. These aren’t drawings or guesses—they map real atoms based on measurable signals, so they’re as real as any scientific observation.

Skeptic: They are all open to interpretation. Who can say what is really being seen. It could just be an artifact.

Me: STM images atoms by measuring a tunneling current caused by electrons passing between a sharp tip and the surface at an atomic scale. This current directly reflects the real arrangement of atoms, not an artifact or guess. The technique won a Nobel Prize and is widely validated, with images reproducible by many labs worldwide under controlled conditions[18][19][20].

Skeptic: I’m not saying I don’t believe it, but it might not be true. We don’t really know anything.

Me: It’s true we can’t know everything with absolute certainty, but STM images are based on well-understood quantum physics and have been independently reproduced worldwide. This method earned a Nobel Prize because it reliably shows atomic-scale details, making it one of the most trusted tools to study atoms. Science builds confidence through repeated testing and confirmation, not just belief.

Skeptic: We don’t really know anything, and scientists giving other scientists prizes is all just political.

Me: The Nobel Prize is awarded by experts through a rigorous, multi-step process based on scientific merit, not politics. While no system is perfect, the prize recognizes discoveries that have been thoroughly tested and widely accepted by the scientific community. The real proof lies in the reproducible experiments and evidence behind the discoveries—not the awards themselves.

Skeptic: Sometimes they take those prizes back because the discovery was fake.

Me: Some Nobel laureates have retracted papers later due to errors or misconduct, but these cases are rare and don’t invalidate the core discoveries recognized by the prize. Since 1901, about 627 Nobel Prizes have been awarded to over 1,000 laureates. However, no Nobel Prize has ever been officially revoked or taken back. According to the Nobel Foundation’s rules, once a prize is awarded, it cannot be rescinded, regardless of later controversies or disproven claims. While some scientific claims by laureates have later been questioned or disproven, the Nobel Committee has never rescinded a prize. Retractions of papers or controversies happen in science, but they are extremely rare and separate from the Nobel Prize awards themselves. Science is self-correcting—when mistakes are found, they are fixed openly. This process actually strengthens trust in scientific knowledge rather than undermines it[21][22].

Johannes Fibiger’s 1926 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine is widely regarded as a mistaken award. He claimed that a parasitic roundworm (Spiroptera carcinoma, now Gongylonema neoplasticum) caused stomach cancer in rats, but later research showed the tumors were actually due to vitamin A deficiency, not cancer caused by the parasite. Fibiger’s prize is unique for being awarded for a claim later shown to be false.

Skeptic: You can’t prove that atoms exist. Atomic theory is questionable.

Me: Atomic theory is not questionable in modern science; it is a well-established and extensively supported scientific framework that explains that all matter is made up of tiny particles called atoms[1][2]. The theory has evolved since its early philosophical origins, with key scientific milestones providing strong evidence for the existence and structure of atoms.

Evidence supporting atomic theory includes:

Ancient Greek philosophers like Democritus (around 400 BC) proposed that matter is made of tiny, indivisible particles called atoms. This was a philosophical idea without experimental proof but laid the conceptual groundwork.

John Dalton’s atomic theory (early 1800s): Dalton proposed that matter is composed of indivisible atoms, atoms of the same element are identical, and atoms combine in fixed ratios to form compounds. This theory explained chemical reactions quantitatively and laid the foundation for modern chemistry[4][5].

Discovery of the electron: J.J. Thomson’s cathode ray experiments in 1897 revealed electrons as subatomic particles, showing atoms are divisible and have internal structure. This overturned the idea of atoms as indivisible particles and led to new atomic models[5].

Rutherford’s gold foil experiment (1909): Ernest Rutherford and colleagues discovered that atoms have a tiny, dense, positively charged nucleus surrounded by mostly empty space where electrons orbit. This was a major breakthrough in understanding atomic structure[5][6].

Modern imaging and spectroscopy: Techniques like scanning tunneling microscopy (STM) allow scientists to directly image individual atoms on surfaces. X-ray crystallography reveals atomic arrangements in crystals. Mass spectrometry identifies isotopes, confirming atoms as distinct entities. Nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) provides detailed information on atomic environments in molecules[5].

Isotopes and atomic variations: Experiments show atoms of the same element can have different masses due to varying numbers of neutrons, further refining atomic theory without disproving it[4].

Predictive power: Atomic theory accurately predicts chemical behavior, bonding, and reactions, enabling the development of countless materials, medicines, and technologies[5].

Atomic theory is supported by over two centuries of experimental evidence and remains the cornerstone of chemistry and physics. Doubting it would require disproving a vast body of consistent, reproducible scientific data obtained through multiple independent methods and technologies. The theory continues to be refined but is far from questionable in its fundamental truth.

In brief: Atomic theory is a proven scientific fact supported by experiments from Dalton’s early postulates to modern atomic imaging and spectroscopy. It explains the nature of matter at its most fundamental level and underpins all modern science and technology.

For atoms to not exist, all the extensive experimental evidence—from Dalton’s chemical laws to Rutherford’s gold foil scattering and modern atomic imaging—would have to be fundamentally wrong or misinterpreted. This would mean countless independent experiments across chemistry, physics, and materials science, done over centuries by many researchers worldwide, all produced consistent but false results by coincidence or error. Given the overwhelming and reproducible data confirming atoms, rejecting their existence would require overturning the entire foundation of modern science and technology.

The Problem of Loss of Faith In Science

It is understandable why many people lose faith in science when confronted with real instances of scientific misconduct, manipulation by industries, or political interference. Research misconduct—such as data fabrication, ghost authorship, and biased reporting—is a growing problem that undermines public trust in scientific institutions and the integrity of research. High-profile scandals, like the misleading antidepressant trial funded by pharmaceutical companies or retracted COVID-19 studies, have shaken confidence and fueled skepticism[9].

This erosion of trust is compounded by systemic issues: the pressure on researchers to publish frequently and produce impactful results can incentivize questionable practices, while powerful commercial and political interests sometimes influence scientific agendas and outcomes. When the public sees trusted authorities and experts fail to uphold transparency and honesty, it becomes natural to doubt not only specific studies but the entire scientific enterprise.

Many people lose faith in science because of real cases where research was manipulated or falsified by industries, governments, or individuals, damaging public trust[11][12][14]. Scientific misconduct—such as data fabrication, biased reporting, or ghost authorship—is a growing problem that can mislead the public and harm society[2][6]. However, science is a self-correcting process: errors and fraud are eventually uncovered through peer review, replication, and transparency efforts[10][14]. Rebuilding trust requires demanding accountability, ethical rigor, and independent oversight while recognizing that the vast majority of scientific knowledge is reliable and supported by extensive evidence.

Ways Anyone Can Confirm That Atoms Exist

Electrolysis of water: When an electric current passes through water, it decomposes into hydrogen gas and oxygen gas. You can observe bubbles of these gases forming at separate electrodes. Crucially, the volume of hydrogen produced is always twice the volume of oxygen. This fixed 2:1 ratio (H₂O) demonstrates that water is composed of discrete, fundamental particles (atoms) that combine in precise proportions. This consistent observation, regardless of the water source or experimental setup, provides strong evidence for the existence of atoms as the indivisible units that make up these gases and water itself.

Microscopy: Instruments like scanning tunneling microscopes (STM) and atomic force microscopes (AFM) can image individual atoms on surfaces, providing direct visual evidence. These microscopes work by scanning a tiny probe extremely close to the surface, allowing scientists to “see” atoms as individual dots, which can even be manipulated one by one in some experiments.

Experiment: While you can’t build an STM at home, visiting a university or science museum with such microscopes lets you see real images of atoms, connecting theory to visual proof.

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X-ray Crystallography: This technique reveals the arrangement of atoms in crystals by analyzing how X-rays diffract through a sample, confirming atomic structures. It’s widely used in chemistry and biology to determine the exact 3D structure of molecules, such as proteins and DNA, showing how atoms are arranged in real materials.

Experiment: You can grow simple salt or sugar crystals at home and observe their geometric shapes, which reflect the underlying atomic arrangement that X-ray crystallography can reveal.

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Spectroscopy: Methods such as nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) and mass spectrometry detect atomic and molecular properties, showing distinct atomic signatures. These techniques are commonly used in medical diagnostics and forensic science, proving their practical reliability in identifying substances based on their atomic makeup.

Experiment: Use a simple handheld spectroscope or prism to split sunlight into a rainbow and observe dark absorption lines (Fraunhofer lines), which are caused by atoms in the sun’s atmosphere absorbing specific wavelengths—an accessible way to see atomic fingerprints.

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Chemical Reactions: The predictable ways substances combine in fixed ratios (stoichiometry) reflect the discrete nature of atoms. For example, water is always formed by two hydrogen atoms and one oxygen atom, which explains why chemical formulas and reactions are consistent and reproducible worldwide.

Experiment: Mix baking soda and vinegar and observe the production of carbon dioxide gas; measuring the amounts of reactants and products shows consistent ratios, demonstrating atoms combine in fixed proportions.

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Brownian Motion: Observing the random movement of particles suspended in fluid (first explained by Einstein) provides indirect evidence of atoms and molecules constantly moving. This motion can be seen under a simple microscope, and its explanation helped convince scientists that invisible atoms are constantly bumping into these particles, causing their jittery movement.

Experiment: Place a drop of fine pollen or dust particles in water on a microscope slide and watch their continuous, jittery motion under a basic microscope or even a strong magnifying glass.

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Each of these methods allow individuals to see or infer atoms’ existence through experiments and observations, independent of trusting any authority.

Image of (Light From) a Single Atom

This award-winning image shows a single strontium atom suspended in an electric field between two electrodes, illuminated by a blue-violet laser. The atom appears as a tiny, pale blue dot captured by a long-exposure shot with an ordinary digital camera through a vacuum chamber window. The laser excites the atom’s electrons, causing them to emit light that the camera records. This image does not show the nucleus itself but the electron cloud around it, which interacts with the light and makes the atom visible. This photo is considered a milestone because it makes a single atom visible to the naked eye in a photograph, bridging the quantum world and macroscopic reality.

This image was originally taken by physicist David Nadlinger at the University of Oxford, who won a national science photography prize for it. The photo shows the atom as a tiny, pale blue dot between two metal electrodes about 2 millimeters apart. The atom itself is not directly imaged; rather, the photo captures light emitted by the atom’s electron cloud when excited by a blue-violet laser. This method allows the atom to be visible to the naked eye in the photograph, bridging quantum scale and macroscopic perception.

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